Each U.S. presidential election (1800-1896)

Great personalities who faced complex challenges in various presidential races

The period from 1800 to 1896 shaped the political landscape of the United States. And the 25 presidential elections held in that span reflected the complexity of American society at the time.

Beginning with the contentious race of 1800, which highlighted the deepening divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, the nation faced growing sectional tensions, the struggle for expansion, and the complex dynamics of slavery. The emergence of new political parties, including the Whigs and the Democrats, reflected shifting ideologies and constituencies.

Throughout these decades, candidates grappled with issues such as economic crises, the impact of the Civil War, and the aftermath of Reconstruction.

The election of 1860, which led to the Civil War, was particularly consequential, as it underscored the nation’s fractures over slavery. Post-war elections had to address the reintegration of Southern states and the rights of newly freed African Americans, further complicating political allegiances.

By 1896, the debate over monetary policy, particularly the gold standard versus bimetallism, emerged as a central theme, culminating in the clash between Republican William McKinley and Democrat William Jennings Bryan.

1800 | Thomas Jefferson (DR) v. John Adams (F)

The 1800 election, also known as the Revolution of 1800, was a realigning event that ushered in a generation of Republican Party rule and the eventual demise of the Federalist Party in the First Party System.

It was a lengthy, bitter rematch of the 1796 election between the pro-French and pro-decentralization Republicans under Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr against incumbent John Adams and Charles Pinckney's pro-British and pro-centralization Federalists.

Central issues included opposition to the tax imposed by Congress to pay for the mobilization of the new army and the navy in the Quasi-War against France in 1798 and the Alien and Sedition Acts, by which Federalists were trying to stifle dissent, especially by Republican newspaper editors.

While the Republicans were well organized at the state and local levels, the Federalists were disorganized and suffered a bitter split between their two leaders, President Adams and Alexander Hamilton.

In the end, incumbent Vice President Thomas Jefferson defeated President John Adams.

Electoral votes by candidate and state

1804 | Thomas Jefferson (DR) v. Charles C. Pinckney (F)

The 1804 presidential election pitted incumbent Democratic-Republican President Thomas Jefferson against Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.

It was the first election conducted following the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution.

Under the rules of the Twelfth Amendment, presidential electors had to specify in their votes their choice for President and Vice President. Previously, electors voted only for the President, with the person who came in second becoming the Vice President.

Jefferson easily defeated Pinckney. His 45.6 percentage point victory margin remains the highest victory margin in a presidential election in which there were multiple major party candidates. The Federalists took only Connecticut, Delaware, and Maryland.

George Clinton was elected Vice President and served under Jefferson and his successor, James Madison.

Electoral votes by candidate and state

1808 | James Madison (DR) v. Charles C. Pinckney (F)

In the 1808 presidential election, Democratic-Republican candidate James Madison defeated Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.

Madison served as United States Secretary of State under incumbent Thomas Jefferson, and Pinckney was the unsuccessful Federalist candidate in the election of 1804.

Sitting Vice President George Clinton, who had served under Thomas Jefferson, also ran. He garnered six electoral votes from a wing of the Democratic-Republican Party that disapproved of Madison.

This election was the first of only two instances in American history in which a new President would be selected but the incumbent Vice President continued to serve (the re-election of John C. Calhoun in 1828 was the other instance).

Electoral votes by candidate and state

1812 | James Madison (DR) v. DeWitt Clinton (F)

The 1812 presidential election took place in the shadow of the war that erupted that year.

James Madison, the Democratic-Republican incumbent, sought a second term. Federalist candidate, DeWitt Clinton, challenged Madison.

The War of 1812 was the prime issue. The Federalists were generally against the conflict but managed to criticize Madison for the setbacks encountered in the early going.

The poor showing of American soldiers in the war's first months largely contributed to the election's close result.

Electoral votes by candidate and state

1816 | James Monroe (DR) v. Rufus King (F)

The election of 1816 came at the end of the two-term presidency of Democratic-Republican James Madison. With the opposition Federalist Party in collapse, Madison's Secretary of State, James Monroe, had an advantage in winning the nomination against a divided opposition.

And Monroe took advantage of the opportunity. He won the Electoral College by a wide margin (183 to 34).

Rufus King was the last Federalist to seek the presidency. King was notable only for his outspoken opposition to slavery. 

The previous four years were dominated by the War of 1812. While it had not ended in victory, the peace was nonetheless satisfactory to the American people, and the Democratic-Republicans received the credit for its prosecution.

In the meantime, the Federalists had been discredited by their opposition to the war and secessionist rhetoric from New England.

Electoral votes by candidate and state

1820 | James Monroe v. John Quincy Adams (DR)

The 1820 presidential election of the United States was the third and last one in history in which a candidate ran effectively unopposed.

Despite the continuation of single-party politics (known as the Era of Good Feelings), serious issues emerged during this race.

The nation had endured a widespread depression following the Panic of 1819, and the extension of slavery into the territories was taking center stage.

Still, incumbent President James Monroe faced no opposition party or candidate in his reelection bid, although he did not receive all the electoral votes.

According to a story of the time, an elector from New Hampshire cast a single ballot for John Quincy Adams to ensure that George Washington would be the only unanimous President.

That elector was William Plummer, who felt Monroe had been an ineffective president and did not deserve a second term. 

The previous two times a candidate ran without serious opposition were in 1789 and 1792, when the father of the country, George Washington, was elected President unanimously.

*Popular vote totals by state were not available until the Election of 1824

Electoral votes by candidate and state

1824 | John Quincy Adams v. Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay and William H. Crawford (DR)

The 1824 election was a historic event for several reasons. No candidate achieved the electoral vote majority, so the contest was decided by the House of Representatives. It was the only time since the passage of the Twelfth Amendment that such thing happened.

Also, it was the only election in which the candidate receiving the most electoral votes did not become president.

It was also often said to be the first election in which the president did not win the popular vote, although not being measured nationwide. Several states did not conduct a popular vote then, allowing their state legislature to choose their electors.

The previous few years had seen a one-party government in the United States, as the Federalist Party had dissolved, leaving only the Democratic-Republican Party. Four separate candidates sought the presidency.

Such splintering had not yet led to formal party organization, but later, the faction led by Andrew Jackson would evolve into the Democratic Party. The factions led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay would become the National Republican Party and later the Whig Party.

Clay was out of contention. William H. Crawford was an unlikely prospect because of a serious illness. Jackson was expected to win, figuring that the House of Representatives would act to confirm his strong showing.

However, Clay, as Speaker of the House, used his influence to sway the vote to Adams. Although they were not close, Clay knew that he and Adams shared a common political philosophy.

John Quincy Adams prevailed on the first ballot in the House of Representatives, became the nation's sixth president, and subsequently appointed Clay Secretary of State.

(1)DELAWARE: 3 electors were chosen by state legislature: 2 for William Crawford; 1 for John Quincy Adams
(2)GEORGIA: 9 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to Crawford
(3)LOUISIANA: 5 electors were chosen by state legislature: 3 for Andrew Jackson; 2 for Adams
(4)NEW YORK: 36 electors were chosen by state legislature: 26 to Adams; 1 to Jackson; 4 to Henry Clay; 5 to Crawford
(5)SOUTH CAROLINA: 11 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to Andrew Jackson
(6)VERMONT: 7 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to John Quincy Adams

1828 | Andrew Jackson (D) v. John Quincy Adams (NR)

The 1824 election had left supporters of Andrew Jackson bitterly disappointed. He had garnered the most electoral votes but had been denied the presidency by the House of Representatives.

This time, a rematch was held between Jackson and incumbent President John Quincy Adams.

Unlike four years ago, no other big names appeared in the race, allowing Jackson to consolidate a power base and easily win an electoral victory over Adams.

The Democratic Party drew support from the existing supporters of Jackson and their coalition with the supporters of William Crawford (the "Old Republicans") and Vice President John C. Calhoun.

The 1828 election was unique in that nominations were no longer made by Congressional caucuses but by conventions and state legislatures.

(1)DELAWARE: 3 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to John Quincy Adams
(2)SOUTH CAROLINA: 11 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to Andrew Jackson

1832 | Andrew Jackson (D) v. Henry Clay (NR) and William Wirt (AM)

The 1932 presidential election saw incumbent President Andrew Jackson seek reelection against Henry Clay, from the National-Republican Party and Anti-Masonic Party nominee William Wirt. John Floyd, who was not running, received the electoral votes of South Carolina.

It was the first time a Democratic convention occurred as the party evolved out of the Democratic-Republican party.

Jackson comfortably won 219 of the 286 electoral votes cast and received 54.2% of the popular vote.

*SOUTH CAROLINA: 11 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to independent candidate John Floyd, who got no popular votes

1836 | Martin Van Buren (D) v. several Whig candidates

Democratic Martin Van Buren faced no opposition for his party nomination to the 1836 presidential election.

The Whigs, however, were split and decided to field several candidates in the hope of having the issue decided by the House of Representatives. 

William Henry Harrison, hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe, hoped to gain the support of Western voters. Daniel Webster had strength in New England, and Hugh Lawson White had backing in the South. It was the only race in which a major political party intentionally did such a thing.

Van Buren won the election with 50.8% of the popular preference and 176 electoral votes. The Whigs, however, were able to make significant gains in Congress.

*SOUTH CAROLINA: 11 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to whig candidate Willie Person Mangum, who got no popular votes

1840 | William Henry Harrison (W) v. Martin Van Buren (D)

The 1840 presidential election saw incumbent Martin Van Buren fight for re-election against an economic depression (epitomized by the Panic of 1837) and a Whig Party unified for the first time behind war hero William Henry Harrison, who easily defeated Van Buren in the Electoral College even though popular vote was close.

This election was unique in that electors cast votes for four men who had been or would become President of the United States: current President Martin Van Buren; President-elect William Henry Harrison; Vice-President-elect John Tyler, who would succeed Harrison upon his death; and James K. Polk, who received one electoral vote for Vice President.

*SOUTH CAROLINA: 11 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to Martin van Buren

1844 | James K. Polk (D) v. Henry Clay (W)

In the 1844 presidential election, Democratic nominee James K. Polk embraced American territorial expansionism. At their convention, the Democrats called for the annexation of Texas while his contender, Whig Henry Clay opposed it. Polk also asserted that the United States had a clear and unquestionable claim to the whole of Oregon.

By informally tying the Oregon boundary dispute to the more controversial Texas debate, the Democrats appealed to both Northern expansionists (who were more adamant about the Oregon boundary) and Southern expansionists (who were more focused on annexing Texas as a slave state).

Polk's margin in the Electoral College was substantial, but the popular vote was extremely close. His boisterous expansionism played very well in the West. He lost just Ohio and Tennessee.

The anti-slavery campaign of James G. Birney of the Liberty Party drew away sufficient votes to deny Clay the presidency.

*SOUTH CAROLINA: 9 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to James K. Polk

1848 | Zachary Taylor (W) v. Lewis Cass (D)

The 1848 presidential race was wide open. President James Polk, having achieved all of his main objectives in one term and suffering from declining health that would take his life less than four months after leaving office, kept his promise not to seek re-election.

The Whigs in 1846-47 had focused all their energies on condemning Polk's war policies. They had to reverse course. In February 1848, Polk enacted the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican-American War and gave the U.S. vast new territories (including California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico). The Whigs in the Senate voted 2-1 to approve the treaty.

Then, in the summer, the Whigs nominated the hero of the war, Zachary Taylor. While he did promise no more future wars, he did not condemn the war or criticize Polk, and Whigs had to follow his lead. They shifted their attention to slavery in new territories.

The Democrats had a record of victory, peace, prosperity, and the acquisition of Oregon and the Southwest. They appeared winners until the Whigs picked Taylor.

Taylor's victory made him one of only two Whigs elected President before the party ceased to exist in the 1850s. The other Whig to be elected President was William Henry Harrison, who had also been a general and war hero but died after a month into office.

*SOUTH CAROLINA: 9 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to Lewis Cass

1852 | Franklin Pierce (D) v. Winfield Scott (W)

Little suspense existed in the 1852 presidential election. The Whig Party was barely clinging to life, so a Democratic victory was practically assured. Slavery, the only real issue of the day, was assiduously avoided by both sides.

None of the Democratic initial candidates secured the necessary two-thirds vote at the convention. The nomination eventually went to Franklin Pierce.

The nearly moribund Whigs pinned their hopes on a military hero, General Winfield Scott. The Free-Soil Party appeared again, drawing off votes from the Whigs.

Scott's military record brought him a healthy popular vote total, but the results in the electoral college were a landslide for Pierce, one of the largest at the time.

After the 1852 election, the Whig Party quickly collapsed, and the members of the declining party failed to nominate a candidate for the next presidential race. The new Republican Party soon became the Democrat primary opposition.

*SOUTH CAROLINA: 8 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to Franklin Pierce

1856 | James Buchanan (D) v. John C. Frémont (R)

The 1856 presidential election was an unusually heated contest that led to the election of Democratic candidate James Buchanan, who had been the minister of Britain from 1853 to 1856.

The incumbent President, Franklin Pierce, was defeated in his effort to be renominated by the Democrats (their official party slogan that year was "Anybody but Pierce").

The Republicans ran their first presidential campaign that year, choosing noted Western explorer John C. Frémont, who condemned the Kansas-Nebraska Act and crusaded against the Slave Power and the expansion of slavery.

Former President Millard Fillmore represented a third party. He earned a little over a fifth of the popular vote.

It was the last time the Democratic Party won an election until 1880.

*SOUTH CAROLINA: 8 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to James Buchanan

1860 | Abraham Lincoln (R) v. John Breckenridge (SD), John Bell (CU), and Stephen Douglas (D)

The United States presidential election of 1860 set the stage for the American Civil War. The nation was divided on questions regarding states' rights and slavery in the territories.

In 1860, this issue finally came to a head, fracturing the formerly dominant Democratic Party into Southern and Northern factions.

Southern elements insisted that the nominating convention make a strong statement supporting slavery in the territories. Western elements, however, opposed that stance. The latter position prevailed and the Southern delegates walked out.

The Northern Democrats later met in Baltimore and nominated Stephen A. Douglas. The Southern Democrats reconvened in Richmond and nominated John C. Breckinridge. A moderate position was sought by the Constitutional Union Party, which nominated John Bell.

The election brought Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party to power without the support of a single Southern state. Hardly more than a month following Lincoln's victory came declarations of secession by South Carolina and other states, which were rejected as illegal by the then-current President, James Buchanan, and President-elect Lincoln.

*SOUTH CAROLINA: 8 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to John Breckinridge

1864 | Abraham Lincoln (R) v. George McClellan (D)

Incumbent President Abraham Lincoln's chances for reelection appeared dim for much of 1864. More importantly, widespread criticism of his handling of the war weakened his stance.

The Union had suffered several disappointments and many blamed his strategy. Further, conservative forces in the North were outraged by the Emancipation Proclamation and feared its impact on the future of society.

Much maneuvering occurred in the Republican Party before the convention because of the president's apparent vulnerability. However, Lincoln was selected on the first ballot.

The Democrats adopted a platform that called for a ceasefire and a negotiated settlement with the South. They nominated George B. McClellan, who promptly repudiated the platform and pledged to conduct the war more skillfully than his contender.

McClellan captured around 45% of the popular vote, but the electoral tally was a landslide for Lincoln.

The 1864 election occurred during the Civil War: none of the states loyal to the Confederate States of America participated.

*NOTE: Eleven Confederate states did not participate in the election because of the Civil War

1868 | Ulysses S. Grant (R) v. Horatio Seymour (D)

The 1868 presidential election was the first during Reconstruction. Texas, Mississippi, and Virginia, three former Confederate states, were not yet restored to the Union and could not vote in the election.

Incumbent President Andrew Johnson, who had ascended to the Presidency in 1865 following the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, couldn't capitalize the Democratic presidential nomination because he had alienated so many people and had not built up a political base. Instead, the Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour to take on the Republican candidate, Civil War hero General Ulysses S. Grant.

The Republican campaign constantly reminded the voters of the Democrats' lack of support for the war effort. Seymour was also attacked for backing an inflationary scheme (repayment of the war debt in greenbacks).

Grant won convincingly in the Electoral College, but the popular vote margin was only about 304,000.

*FLORIDA: 3 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to Ulysses Grant

1872 | Ulysses S. Grant (R) v. Horace Greeley (D)

Incumbent President Ulysses S. Grant, leader of the Radical Republicans, was easily elected to a second term in office despite a split within the Republican Party that resulted in a defection of many Liberal Republicans to opponent Horace Greeley. The Democratic Party also nominated the candidates of the Liberal Republican ticket that year.

Greeley died on November 29, 1872, after the popular vote but before the Electoral College cast its votes. As a result, electors previously committed to Greeley voted for four candidates for President and eight nominees for Vice President. Greeley himself received three posthumous electoral votes, but these votes were disallowed by Congress.

It was the only election in which a Presidential candidate died during the electoral process.

*Horace Greeley died on November 29, 1872, after the popular election, but before the Electoral College met. His electoral votes were split among four individuals including 18 for Benjamin Gratz Brown, Greeley's running mate

1876 | Rutherford Hayes (R) v. Samuel Tilden (D)

The 1876 presidential election was one of the most disputed in American history. Samuel J. Tilden of New York outpolled Ohio's Rutherford B. Hayes in popular votes and achieved 184 electoral votes to Hayes' 165, with 20 votes uncounted.

These 20 electoral votes were in dispute: in three states (Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina), each party reported its candidate had won the state, while in Oregon, one elector was declared illegal (as an "elected or appointed official") and replaced.

The states with disputed votes submitted two sets of electoral ballots, one favoring Tilden, the other Hayes. The Constitution had not foreseen this event. There were rumors in some quarters about the possibility of a war. In the end, Congress appointed an "impartial" Electoral Commission to find a solution.

The 20 disputed electoral votes were ultimately awarded to Hayes after a bitter legal and political battle, giving him the victory. According to historians, the informal Compromise of 1877 was struck to resolve the dispute. Tilden and the Democratic Party accepted a GOP victory, while Hayes pledged to withdraw federal troops from the states of the former Confederacy, effectively ending Reconstruction.

*COLORADO: 3 electors were chosen by state legislature and awarded to Rutherford B. Hayes

1880 | James Garfield (R) v. Winfield Hancock (D)

Incumbent President Rutherford Hayes did not run for re-election, thus fulfilling a promise made during the 1876 contest. The Republican Party ultimately chose James A. Garfield, as its candidate, while the Democratic Party nominated Civil War General Winfield S. Hancock.

There was little debate on the major issues during the campaign. Both major parties tiptoed around the money question, avoided civil service reform, and supported high pensions for Civil War veterans as well as restrictions on immigration.

The difference was in tariffs. Republicans favored higher tariffs, while Democrats supported lower ones.

The popular vote was very close, one of the smallest margins in U.S. history, but the electoral tally openly favored Garfield by winning 214 of 369 electoral votes.

1884 | Grover Cleveland (D) v. James Blaine (R)

The United States presidential election of 1884 featured excessive mudslinging and personal acrimony.

Grover Cleveland, the Democratic nominee, had fathered an illegitimate child years earlier in Buffalo. He had taken full financial responsibility for his offspring and publicly acknowledged that he had made a mistake.

His counterpart, Republican James G. Blaine, apparently engaged in questionable investment schemes while on the public payroll. Much of the campaign furor revolved around the difference between private and public misdeeds.

On November 4, 1884, Cleveland narrowly defeated Blaine to become the first Democrat elected President of the United States since James Buchanan 28 years ago (before the American Civil War).

New York decided the election, awarding Cleveland the state's 36 electors by just 1,047 votes.

1888 | Benjamin Harrison (R) v. Grover Cleveland (D)

The tariff was the biggest issue in the United States 1888 presidential election. Benjamin Harrison, the Republican candidate, opposed tariff reduction, while the policies of incumbent President Grover Cleveland on pensions, the currency, and tariff reform had made enemies among veterans, farmers, and industrialists.

Even with this handicap, the Democrat had more popular votes than Harrison. However, Harrison received more support from the Electoral College and won the election.

It was the third time in history (it previously happened in 1824 and 1876) when the popular vote winner was defeated. It did not occur again until the 2000 election (George W. Bush v. Al Gore).

1892 | Grover Cleveland (D) v. Benjamin Harrison (R)

Former President, Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland ran for re-election against the incumbent, Republican Benjamin Harrison, who was also running for re-election.

The winner would become the only person in U.S. history elected to a second, non-consecutive presidential term, a feat that can be achieved by Donald Trump if he wins the 2024 residential election.

Cleveland had won the popular vote against Harrison in 1888 but lost the electoral vote which cost him re-election. This time, he won the popular and electoral votes. The Democrat nominee enjoyed solid support in the South and the Swing States, and managed to draw votes from Republicans who were unhappy with Harrison

The campaign centered mainly on the issue of a sound currency. The new Populist Party, formed by groups from the Grange, the Farmers' Alliances, and the Knights of Labor, polled more than a million votes.

1896 | William McKinley (R) v. William Jennings Bryan (D)

The 1896 presidential election was on November 3, 1896, with Republican William McKinley and 36-year-old Democrat William Jennings Bryan battling in a campaign considered by historians a turning point in American history.

The race occurred during the Panic of 1893 economic depression. McKinley conducted a "front porch campaign" in which he remained at home in Canton, Ohio, and lots of supporters were brought in to hear him deliver short speeches tailored for his audiences.

In contrast, Bryan traveled widely and asked his audiences for their votes. His campaign train stopped at towns and hamlets and the candidate delighted his largely rural listeners with his flamboyant oratory.

In the early fall of 1896, many observers believed Bryan was the frontrunner, but in the end, McKinley achieved the victory. Massive Republican advertising and the faltering economy worked heavily against the Democrats.

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